Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement typified by a revived interest in the classical world and studies which focussed not on faith but on what it is to be human. Its origins went dorsum to 14th-century Italy and such authors as Petrarch (1304-1374) who searched out 'lost' ancient manuscripts. Past the 15th century, humanism had spread beyond Europe.
Humanists believed in the importance of an educational activity in classical literature and the promotion of civic virtue, that is, realising a person's total potential both for their own good and for the good of the society in which they alive. The difficulty in defining humanism and its always-evolving graphic symbol have non prevented information technology being widely regarded as the defining feature of 1400 to 1600 Europe and the very reason why that period can be identified equally a Renaissance or 'rebirth' of ideas.
Defining Humanism
Humanism was a term invented in the 19th century to describe the Renaissance idea that directly studying the works of antiquity was an important function of a rounded education (merely not the merely part). From this position came the idea that the study of humanity should be a priority every bit opposed to religious matters (which need not exist neglected or contradicted past humanist studies). Of import classical ideals which interested humanists included the importance of public and individual virtue, Latin grammar, techniques of rhetoric, history, conventions in literature and poesy, and moral philosophy. This educational activity did not create an extensive philosophy or worldview in its adherents. Someone who had a humanist educational activity might be a Catholic or a Protestant, for case, and many students went on to study very different branches of thought such as theology, law, or medicine.
The idea really took off that the aboriginal world had something very valuable to teach the people of the 15th century.
In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different pregnant (a rational and non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original purpose, when applied to 1400-1600, information technology is often clarified equally 'Renaissance Humanism'. It is important to remember, though, that Renaissance thinkers did not themselves utilize the term humanism, and neither did they agree on all subjects. Due to these problems of definition, some historians adopt to use the term studia humanitatis, coined by the Roman statesman Cicero (106-43 BCE) and revived by the Florentine scholar Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). Studia humanitatis refers to studies which, rather than concentrating on religious matters, focus instead on what it is to be human being, and more precisely, consider what is a virtuous individual in its widest sense and how may that individual fully participate in public life.
The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:
an involvement in studying literature and fine art from artifact
an interest in the eloquent apply of Latin and philology
a belief in the importance and power of pedagogy to create useful citizens
the promotion of private and civic virtue
a rejection of scholasticism
the encouragement of non-religious studies
an emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
a belief in the importance of observation, critical assay, and creativity
a conventionalities that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better way of living
an interest in the question 'what does it mean to be man'?
Half-dozen Tuscan Poets by Vasari
Minneapolis Plant of Fine art (Public Domain)
Origins of the Classical Revival
The humanist movement tin can be traced back to a trio of Italian authors who lived before the Renaissance period had even begun: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE), Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). All three would receive new involvement in their piece of work during the Renaissance when they were recognised as its founding fathers. Dante was the first, and his Divine Comedy (c. 1319), although a book with a central message on how to accomplish salvation, was a subtle shift from entirely religious-focussed works to those considering humanity'southward role in God'due south universe. The Divine Comedy had many overtly classical elements, from the Roman poet Virgil (seventy-xix BCE) interim as a guide to the many aboriginal historical figures mentioned.
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Next came Petrarch, who was an equally religious man but in his work criticised some elements of the Cosmic Church such equally its corruption and excessive dearest of show. Petrarch rejected scholasticism which grimly held on to Church dogma and created endless rounds of fruitless debate amongst scholars. He made mayhap his greatest contribution to the study of antiquity by finding manuscripts which had become 'lost' in obscure monastic libraries. Amongst his famous discoveries were several works and letters past Cicero.
Greek scholars fled the collapsing Byzantine Empire & brought classical texts with them to Europe.
Petrarch believed that a new gilt age of thought and politics could be accomplished past returning to the ideals of antiquity and by permitting poets and scholars to pb a revolution in education. His thought that the flow in which he lived was an intermediary period between artifact and this new dawn, what he called disparagingly 'a slumber' was latched onto by afterward Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the Center Ages was somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's piece of work with ancient manuscripts encouraged the scholarship of non-religious subjects with humanity at its center, and this became a legitimate activity for intellectuals. Consequently, Petrarch is oft cited equally the father of humanism.
Giovanni Boccaccio likewise searched out 'lost' manuscripts relevant to antiquity. In addition, his Decameron (10 Days), a drove of tales compiled between c. 1348 and 1353, appealed to later on humanists considering information technology dealt with everyday human experiences in keen detail. Bocaccio likewise created works that were of great apply to humanist scholars such as his Ancestry of the Heathen Gods.
Cicero
Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Capitoline Museum) (CC By-NC-SA)
All iii of these writers promoted the apply of the Tuscan vernacular (at to the lowest degree in poetical works), and this eventually led to the dominance of Latin being challenged. Humanists, though, continued to favour Latin for scholarly purposes and modelled their Latin on that of Cicero for prose and Virgil for poetry. The arrival of the press press in Europe in 1450 was some other boost to the trio of authors mentioned to a higher place and the democratisation of knowledge. Renaissance humanism gave great importance to invention, and hither, again, Dante with his cosmos of terza rima (poems formed of stanzas of three rhyming lines) and Boccaccio'south innovative promotion in written grade of the ottava rima (where stanzas are formed of eight 11-syllable lines) fit that sentiment perfectly.
The Classical Ideal
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars fled the collapsing Byzantine Empire and brought classical texts with them to Europe, specially Italy. These were a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries. Consequently, by 1515 the works of all major classical authors were available in print. Looking at these works every bit a whole, one idea which especially interested Renaissance thinkers was virtus (virtue or excellence) and civic duty. Petrarch had studied this half a century before only now the idea really took off that the ancient world had something very valuable to teach the people of the 15th century. Renaissance humanists now wanted to use, analyse, and critique ancient sources to improve one's public life in service of the land. Theoretical knowledge was not enough, what was gained from written report had to exist put into exercise for the skillful of the state and all who lived in information technology. Consequently, the slap-up question, what does information technology hateful to exist homo that preoccupied Renaissance scholars provoked answers that included religious, philosophical, scientific, and artistic considerations.
It today seems rather odd that scholars took such an interest in ancient sources which might exist considered outdated and irrelevant to contemporary society. For humanist thinkers, though, antiquity, as seen in then many newly discovered manuscripts, presented a fresh and vibrant culling to the brackish puddle of thought so jealously guarded by the medieval church building. The new horizons offered by these texts and the seemingly unbiased approach of aboriginal scholars in discussing and explaining the earth without any preconceived ideas made the whole Renaissance process seem, similar its very proper noun indicates, an intellectual rebirth. Humanist scholars were not uncritical of ancient sources, on the reverse, just like many ancient thinkers, they approached any discipline with disquisitional analysis. Further, to arroyo a given subject considerately, one must be intellectually free and with this idea came that of the free-thinking private, i unrestrained by religious or political bias. At that place were fifty-fifty those who thought that God had given humanity the earth as a exam, to make of information technology what they will and utilise their virtue into making it a meliorate identify. In this way, humanism was not in opposition to faith for many thinkers, but information technology did lead to the idea of a morally-autonomous individual, which in plow led to individualism.
16th Century CE Flemish Book Printer
The British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA)
At that place was nonetheless some other reason to admire the ancients: their eloquence of statement. Cicero was taken as the example par excellence of superb writing in Latin. Rhetoric - another term that modernity has twisted out of all recognition from its original meaning - was then the art of presenting eloquent argument. Further, this was not but a trick to exist used by scholars in their writing, this was a tool to be used in everyday life. In other words, rhetoric is persuasion, and with persuasion comes power. Rhetoric could become the means by which humanists spread their ideas, persuading everyone from a literate merchant to the ruler of a dukedom that theirs was the best way to be educated, alive, piece of work, and rule.
The Spread of Humanism
The press press helped spread humanist ideas from their origins in Italy to the north of Europe. Indeed, the virtually celebrated humanist scholar of his mean solar day was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Erasmus believed that education was the reply to the Cosmic Church'due south bug (and non a radical Reformation). To this finish, he compiled editions of classical authors and provided a new Latin and Greek translation of the New Testament. Erasmus' precipitous and critical examination of original texts to produce this, his textual assay of current versions, and his interest in philology would be influential on other Renaissance scholars.
Although early on humanists were often Christians, the movement's emphasis on critical inquiry did lead to an inevitable clash with Church regime who depended on mass and uncritical acceptance of secondhand interpretations of doctrine. That some humanist scholars became champions of infidel texts was some other bone of contention.
Desiderius Erasmus by Matsys
Quentin Matsys (Public Domain)
In the n of Europe, humanist scholars were more interested in religious reforms compared to elsewhere, hence their brand of humanism is oftentimes chosen Religious Humanism. Sir Thomas More than (1478-1535), the English scholar and statesman, was one effigy in this movement. A defender of the Cosmic Church against the Reformists, he famously wrote Utopia in 1516 about an ideal society set on an imaginary island. More likely intended the work equally a thinly-veiled criticism of the reign of Henry Viii of England (r. 1509-1547), merely its radical presentation of a society where anybody works for the common good and shares every bit in its success rang a note of recognition in the minds of humanist scholars elsewhere. The obvious link with Plato's Commonwealth was another point of favour with the classical-loving humanists.
A Humanist Instruction
Erasmus was important in ane other area: teaching for everybody. It was all very well for scholars to debate the ideals of education in theory simply more practical offerings were needed to attain the humanist goal of widening education. Erasmus, therefore, wrote many textbooks such as his hugely popular On Copia (1512), which taught students how to fence, revise texts, and produce new ones. His 1521 On Writing Letters taught how to all-time write letters, aim for specific audiences, and employ eloquent expressions. Erasmus even produced guides for those wishing to establish a school and compiled recommended syllabuses.
Humanists emphasised the importance of an education which covered the liberal arts of rhetoric, moral philosophy, grammar, history, and poetry. Concrete exercise, merely similar in ancient Hellenic republic, was too considered an essential role of a rounded education that resulted in immature people existence able to realise their potential and become skilful citizens. In add-on, a humanist didactics continued for life, and it was never besides belatedly to learn its benefits, especially so for rulers.
Humanism in Science
Observing, analysing, and categorising the earth around u.s.a. was an of import part of humanist thought, simply as information technology had been in antiquity. For this reason, science made great leaps forwards during the Renaissance, powered at first by developments in mathematics. The Smoothen astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed that the solar system was heliocentric, amid other innovative ideas, in his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, published in 1543. Copernicus was a archetype Renaissance scholar every bit he studied the works of antiquity, observed what he could in the world personally, collated all that had been studied thus far in his field, and so came up with a new view of the subject at mitt. Possibly the greatest contribution humanism made to scientific discipline was its thirst for answers and the conviction that they could be found through human endeavour.
The School of Athens by Raphael
Raphael (Public Domain)
Humanism in the Arts
Rulers like Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482 in Urbino and Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574) in Florence were swell admirers of artifact and built up impressive humanist libraries. They were, too, collectors of ancient art such as sculpture, sarcophagi, relief panels, and coins. Both men also became swell patrons of the arts, encouraging humanist artists. This was a pattern imitated by rulers beyond Europe.
Renaissance painters and sculptors became very interested in classical mythology, sometimes fifty-fifty combining it with Christian themes such as subtly representing Venus equally the Virgin Mary. Ancient thinkers were straight represented in art, perhaps virtually famously in the School of Athens fresco in the Vatican past Raphael (1483-1520).
In that location was, too, an appreciation of the skill of aboriginal artists, peculiarly sculptors and their ability to capture reality in bronze or marble. Renaissance artists were keen to capture this reality themselves, a process going back as early every bit Giotto (b. 1267 or 1277 - d. 1337) and culminating with the hyper-realistic portraits past late Renaissance Netherlandish artists. Just similar Renaissance writers, artists wanted not simply to emulate the classical tradition but besides to better upon it. Consequently, the correct employ of perspective became an e'er-more precise endeavour for Renaissance artists. Artists were also convinced that their ancient counterparts had somehow discovered mathematical secrets of proportion, peculiarly related to the human body.
Artists now gave emphasis to the homo feel in their art. Portraits, for example, might include a classical volume next to the sitter to emphasise their humanist tendencies. Even religious works of the period accept a focus on the human figures and their story inside the scene. Just as humanist writers knew total well the powerful event of their words, so, likewise, artists knew the power they had to create a lasting aesthetic impression on the viewer. Maybe there is no improve example of this wow-factor than Michelangelo'southward Sistine Chapel ceiling. Finally, the emphasis on the private within humanism establish expression in the way artists now viewed themselves - superior artisans who used their intellect to study fine art and create masterpieces that would conduct their fame for generations to come up.
Loggia of Ospedale degli Innocenti by Brunelleschi
Sailko (CC BY-SA)
Humanism pervaded Renaissance compages where buildings were designed that were elegant, symmetrical, functional, and harmonious with their surroundings, just equally they had been in ancient Rome. To a higher place all, buildings displayed the classical ratios of length and tiptop.
Humanism, with its reverence for classical authors and what exactly a cognition of antiquity tin can teach us found expression in the performance arts, notably in the plays of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) who was interested in characters that could reveal the breadth and depth of the human feel. Shakespeare is non perhaps taking any particular side in the humanist debates presented in his works but he does, at least, make full masterly utilize of that humanist ability tool - language - to achieve his effects.
The Legacy of Renaissance Humanism
Humanism transformed educational activity and rejuvenated the world of ideas and art with its discovery, promotion, and adaptation of classical works. It led to the creation of an international network of scholars linked past letters and books, the separation of church building and politics, the critical examination of texts leading to the discovery of inaccuracies and even forgeries, and the cosmos of public libraries.
Perhaps inevitably, though, humanist scholars and thinkers began to divide into groups every bit they specialised into different areas of what was already a hopelessly broad area of human try. There were realists confronting moralists, those who wanted to forget all about organized religion and those who did not, and those who were republicans and those who were royalists. There were humanists who thought the study of linguistic communication an stop itself while others thought information technology only a means to understand ideas. Some preferred a life of contemplation in contrast to those who still stuck to the thought of putting humanism into political practice. Equally scientific discipline, the arts, history, philosophy, and theology all split away from each other, so Renaissance humanism came to an end, broken apart as scholarly specialisation won the battle confronting earning a comprehensive overview of the human condition.
Despite the breaking upwardly of the humanist movement into its component parts, the essential idea that humans were worthy of serious study is ane that has never gone abroad, of course. If anything, this idea has only widened and deepened. The subjects that were considered important to written report in classical sources such as philosophy, history, and literature came to be collectively known as the humanities, and today, of grade, they form major faculties in colleges and universities worldwide.
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